Poverty Vs. The Economy Essay -- Poor Poverty Economics Essays

Poverty vs. The Economy Poverty is a lack of goods and services necessary to maintain a minimal adequate standard of living. The definition of the term adequate varies, however, with the general standard of living in a society and with public attitudes toward deprivation. No university accepted definition of basic needs exists because poverty is a relative concept. In poorer countries it means living at the brink of subsistence, while in our country few improvised families confront starvation, although many suffer from undernourishment. A key issue in the area of poverty is inequality. Inequality has been a problem in all societies. No society distributes income evenly. Despite all the conceptual and technical problems of measurement, the government has devised a widely cited poverty index that reflects the different consumption requirements of families depending on their size and composition, on the sex and age of the family head, and on weather they live in rural or urban areas. Based on past surveys, the designers of the poverty index determined that families of three or more person spend approximately one-third of their income on food. Thus, the poverty level for these families was, therefore, set at three times the cost of the economy food plan. For smaller families and persons living alone, the cost of the economy food plan was multiplied by higher factors in order to compensate for the larger fixed expenses of smaller households. The poverty thresholds are updated every year to reflect changes in the consumer price index but overall rises in standard of living. (levington, page 147) Another issue is that the poverty index has several flaws. First, it does not allow for regional variations in the cost of living or for higher costs in the central city areas, where many of the poor are concentrated. Second, the flood costs for the budget were designed for temporary or emergence use and are thus inadequate for a perment diet because they provide only the barest subsistence. Finally, the government statistics fall to take into consideration nonmonetary benefits and assets in determining the number of poor. If these were counted, the numbers in the official poverty ranks would be reduced. The growing gap between the poverty level and median family income demonstrates the inaccuracy of adjusting a poverty level for price ... ...easy. Birth control and maternal care, designed to give children a better start in life, also leave the mother in a better position to become economically self sufficient or, at least, contribute to her own support. Similarly, the difference between cash subsides and rehabilitative programs is often blurred, for instance, stipends are necessary for the poor if they are to complete an effective training program. These various strategies for helping the poor complement each other. Not only must today's poverty be alleviated through cash and in-and aid, but steps must be taken to reduce it in the future by better preparing young people and by giving the poor a better chance in the job market. Bibliography Fitchen,Janet M.(1981). Poverty and Rural America New York,York: Random house Publishing Company. Jansson, Bruce S. (1988). The Reluctant Welfare State, A History of Amercians Social Welfare Policies. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Katz, Michael B. (1990) The Undeserving Poor the War on Poverty to the war on Welfare, New York, New York. Levitan, Sar A. And Shapiro, Issac. (1987), Working But Poor. New York, New York: The free Press.

Australia’s Economic Objective of Resource Allocation Essay

The objective of efficient resource allocation refers to an economy’s ability to meet its obligations in ensuring that all social and economic objectives are met without waste, for example to allocate resources so that they are distributed efficiently to improve the standard or living. This is the only way that we can ensure that we will be able to maximize the number of goods and services that we are able to provide. In addition, we will also be more likely to guarantee the long term availability of the resources that are currently available to us. The current target for efficiency target concerning labor is 1.5-2% per year or more. Thus, the economic objective of efficiency in resource allocation exists when our productive inputs are used to create the highest possible value of national output (ie GDP is at its highest level). In turn, having more G&S available helps to ensure the maximum satisfaction of our society’s needs and wants. In Economics, we distinguish between four different types of efficiency:1.Productive (or Technical) efficiency: Is about firms producing G&S using the least-cost method and by minimizing the quantity of resources used. This is perhaps the easiest type of efficiency to understand. In this instance, we are interested in ensuring that any time we produce a good or service we are able to do so by using the smallest number of resources. If I use a tree to make four cricket bats, and you can produce five cricket bats from a tree of the same size, then your productive efficiency is better than mine. Another example is also sometimes a higher level of investment spending by firms on new equipment rather than simply employing more staff is the cheapest way to lift output per worker. 2.Allocative efficiency: ensures that resources are only used to make those particular types of G&S that best satisfy society’s needs and wants. That is, we want to produce those things most desired by the community first. This is a problem experienced by many of the world’s poorer countries,  especially those which suffer from poor governance. Corrupt leaders will often use a countries scarce resources to provide elaborate palaces, rather than ensuring that their people have access to clean drinking water. This is very poor allocative efficiency. 3.Dynamic efficiency: entails that firms are able to respond quickly to changing economic circumstances. To be dynamically efficient means that firms are aware of the changing circumstances, and they are able to adapt to meet those new needs and tastes of customers. For example, as technology has improved, many businesses have elected to adopt computers. This has involved buying the hardware, choosing the correct software and training the staff. In going through this process, the firm is demonstrating their dynamic efficiency. 4.Inter-temporal efficiency: means that there is a suitable balance between resources being allocated towards current consumption and saving that becomes available to finance future investment. Causes of efficiency of resource allocation:Cyclical changes in domestic economic activity resulting from changes in demand side conditions that affect efficiency in resource allocation. Supply side structural causes of changes in labor in lobular and capital productivity. Demand Side CYCLICAL FactorsIf levels of AD and EA slow leading to a recession (due to weak demand-side conditions like drops in business confidence/consumer), labor efficiency can suffer for at least 4 reasons. 1.Firms are reluctant to sack experienced staff during a slowdown of sales, as they hope that recovery is not far away and thus save them the cost of hiring and training new staff. This leads to over staffing which lowers the level of output per hour worked. 2.Prolonged or severe cyclical recessions in EA causes higher cyclical  unemployment as staff are cut in numbers, slowing down efficiency rates because more of labor resources are idle. 3.Business confidence about sales and profits, once down, can partly cause recession. This causes the firm to cut investment on new P&E with new technology, consequently productivity slows. 4.Cyclical slowdown in domestic productivity sometimes follows trends in the level of EA and productivity overseas. Productivity also slows when there is an inflationary boom following cyclical rises in the level of domestic economic activity. This is true when the growth in AD exceeds the economoy’s productive capacity. Productivity may slow down in this situation. 1. Workers may not work as hard as they feel secure in the jobs when the economy is stretched to its capacity. Abseentisms can rise, along with strikes and industrial unrest, cutting efficiency. 2. When the economy is at its full capacity, there can be diminishing returns resulting from equipment breakdowns, labor shortages, leading to less efficient natural, labor and capital resources. 3. Rapid inflation can undermine business confidence, leading to reduced investment in new technology and equipment, slowing efficiency. 4. Investment used for expanding the business through plant & equipment can be pumped into less productive or more speculative areas (eg real estate and stock market activities.) This is a mis allocation of resources that slows down productivity. So, when EA is weak due to reduced level of AD, productivity falls due to pessimism, reduced investment, unemployed resources, and labor hoarding. However, at the opposite extreme, excessively strong spending and EA means that productivity suffers from the above reasons. Productivity is likely to be maximized when AD and domestic EA are at ideal levels and demand side conditions are positive but are neither too weak nor too strong. Business Confidence – Optimism of business (eg ^ consumer confidence, ^ household disposable incomes) has a cyclical impact on efficiency. This results in the business investing in new equipment with latest technology, leading to the worker having a greater value/amount of machinery to use in the production process than previously (capital deepening), thus raises theh level of GDP per hour worked. Interest Rates – Higher business overdraft means that firms are more reluctant to borrow in order to purchase new, more efficient plant equipment due to increased repayments. Investment thus is reduced and productivity slows. Company Tax Rates – Impacts the level of the firm’s investment spending. Reduced tax rates increased investment spending and better productivity. Supply Side Structural FactorsSupply factors are far more significant than demand factors when we are considering the impact that certain events will have on our ability to allocate our resources efficiently. If you think about this for a moment it is logical – supply factors are those things that affect the ability and willingness of producers to supply a good or service at a given price. When the US economy experiences an increase in AG, we should see an increase in output without any pressure on productive capacity that may result in inflation. This is a sign that resources are being allocated more efficiently. As a result, we can conclude that any factor that will lead to an increase in aggregate supply will also lead to a more efficient allocation of resources. For example during the 1990s the Australian economy saw the introduction of technology on a larger scale. This improvement in capital assets, combined with the necessary support in the form of training for the workforce, resulted in significant improvements in productivity, showing that resources were allocated more efficiently. Climatic conditions – Drought and below average rainfall (2002-03 – 06-07), floods, cyclones (coastal Northern QLD 2006) impacted efficiency in resource allocation because national output is reduced far more than the volume of inputs of labor or capital resources. Drought also had an impact in the efficiency in water, gas and electricity sectors that is, the same labor inputs have been used but less output has been produced. Sporting events (Before and After) – Events like the Sydney Olympics (2000) and Melb’s Commonwealth Games (06) may have helped in slowing productivity. Studies show during these events that worker efficiency fell perhaps due to distractions and telecasts and worker fatigue from watching TV replays at night. Changing rates of investment in new technology – Investment spending on new P&E like ICT and robotics occurs in waves or cycles, that is, speeds up or slows down. After the flurry of robotics, electronics and computer and internet based technologies in the mid-late 1990s, many recent innovations have been far less significant, tending to slow efficiency. However fairly recent spending on R&D as a proportion of GDP from 1.51 to 1.78% b/w 200-1 and 2004-05 is a sign that US productivity will rise again. BIBLIOGRAPHY www.abs.gov.auMorris, Economics Down Under 2nd Edition

Groupthink and Risky Shift Phenomenon Essay

Groupthink phenomenon continues to exist and influence in a group decision making. This is especially happen when group cohesiveness is high and there is an absence of open communication. However, understanding the theory would enable us to recognize the factors that may affect the quality of decisions we made in the group. Risky-shift on the other hand, exists as a form of motivation with a perspective of a shared responsibility of taking the risky decision. It is generally accepted that this risky-shift influence by cultural value in which individual is motivated to choose the riskier alternative to increase group or society status. Understanding risky-shift enables us to reduce the magnitude of pressure of which the risk has to bring as imbedded in every decision made during uncertainties. In addition, group interaction is very important in the process of decision-making whereby individual opinion and ideas is valued. It is also in this way that individual will learn to stand his position in certain decision-making procedure. It maybe be difficult and challenging since individual will share different ideas and inputs, exchange opinions and contrary views, yet in the process develop alternatives to the solution in problem solving which reflects a good group decision-making. Overall, these sociological phenomenon and perspective allow us to identify attributes that may control and limit the development of best alternative in solving problem and issues. Finally, a clear understanding of the elements of these theories will enable members to recognised symptoms within a faulty group decision-making and draw the best alternative course of action from the group. This paper is going to provide insights on the case of Yellow Auto Company in term of the critical decision in the sociological perspective area such as the Groupthink and Risky-shift phenomenon. Introduction Group decision-making sometimes falls into the typical group norm which oftentimes leads to failure. This happens usually because of the idea of group cohesion and valuing the need for belongingness in the group. Janis (1972) defines it as a deliberate action of an individual group member to conform to the decision of the group to keep the harmony. The reason behind is to avoid clashes and come up with a solution without being critical during a group decision-making process. In addition to the need of individual for belonging, group tendency to transfer the risk to group members allow the group to choose the riskier alternative. It usually, emerges from a faulty organizational structure and communication perspective which oftentimes results a high probability of failure. The Yellow Auto Company was a well-known global car company in India. The company is own and manage by the family where the structure is hierarchical in which line managers and employee has no autonomy in terms of decision making. There is an obvious high cohesion within the members of the decision making body and this is described as unwritten rules of the company which is mostly in the minds of the family members. When the top managers of the Yellow Auto Company, notice the decreasing job satisfaction and commitment of their employees, they decided to invest on their development. Even though, there was an existing economic crisis in the country, the group decided pursuit with their plans in investing in human resource with the assistance of external consultant. This report will utilize the sociological perspective to critically analyse these significant issue and the make recommendation to an effective group decision-making. The Groupthink phenomenon The most critical decision that the Yellow Auto Company have done was the decision of hiring and working with external consultant. Since the company was owned and manage by the family, its group structure is assumed to have high group cohesiveness and lack of critical discussion procedures. Janis (1972) exerts that group with high cohesiveness encourages conformity to its norms and without adequate decision procedures which is a condition of groupthink will tend to result to a poor decision (Callaway & Esser, 1984). In this case the family who runs the company shares common purposes and interests, that gives them a sense of security resulting to a shared illusion of invulnerability (Teale, Dispenza, Flynn, & Currie, 2003a). This is further describe in the case where most of the rules are unwritten and in the minds of the family members which is a characteristic of group conformity (Teale, et al. , 2003a) and where employees did not have much autonomy in decision making. This conformity of individual to adapt the decision of group members (Gerring, Zimbardo, Campbell, Cumming, & Wilkes, 2012), tends to suppressed individual critical thinking to avoid being ridiculed and being question on their loyalty. The structure of communication process was described as hierarchical where agenda can readily be manipulated and directed by pressure of group conformity which reflects self-censorship (Teale, et al. , 2003a). The top managers and owner who make the dominant decision for the organization (Teale, Dispenza, Flynn, & Currie, 2003b) may result to a limited quality of the decision as described by Simon as ‘bounded rationality’ (Tolbert & Hall, 2008). As a result of this limitation the group could only identify and provide less alternative course of action to the problem than in groups where participation is encourage (Carrie, 2010). In addition, the absence of critical thinking in group discussion may devoid individual of their potentials to contribute mportant information necessary of the group (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). In this scenario, the manager may cause other members to follow whatever personal view (Janis, 1972) he may have which is a groupthink perspective characterized by a high level of confidence and lack of disagreement from group members(Callaway & Esser, 1984). However, when the top managers realized the need for experts to manage change process in human resource which reflect task-oriented group (Teale, et al. , 2003a) shows a positive group structure which characterised an effective group decision. Inviting outside expert is a criterion to prevent the groupthink phenomena, allowing independent group to work on the same problem and assess the organizations. When top managers, line managers and employees decided to work and cooperate with external consultant, it bridges the gap and opens the communication between managers and employees. This communication process, allows members of the group to provides unreserved feedbacks to reduce and unveil the hidden and unknown areas as described in Johari Window as information keep to avoid conflict and concealed potential and unrecognized skills(Teale, et al. 2003a). In addition it allows group members to contribute in the development of high-quality decision which is a characteristic of consensus perspective (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). The occurrence of open communication between managers and employees display an active cooperation of the group, which is a characteristic for an effective implementation of a decision(Amason, 1996). This intermediate cohesiveness(Callaway & Esser, 1984) produces high quality decision which builds mutual respect, acceptable culture and shared direction in the achievement of organizational goal. This is a reflection of process-oriented group (Teale, et al. , 2003a) skills where group interaction uses cooperative listening and other social skills to produce a common understanding and getting the job done. Overall, this changes and action of top managers towards their employee builds a mutual commitment for a successful implementation of the decision as described by Guth and Macmillan (Amason, 1996). The Risky-shift phenomenon Most often the group will chose a riskier alternative than decision made by individual (Burnstein, 1969; Stoner, 1968), whereby members of the groups ends to decide differently about perceived risk when they are alone. Some of the many reasons why it might happen include diffusion of responsibility where emotion bonds exist. In this case, the relationship of the family who runs the company, may have the tendency to reduce apprehension and perceived the risk as shared (Wallach, Kogan, & Bem, 1964). Group members would take a risky alternative with the fee ling of less personal responsibility for the negative consequences of such a decision(Forsyth, 1990) and less likelihood of being blamed. It is also a way for individual to easily hide within the group when making contributions to a group discussion and speak only when expected that the group would agree as described by a spiral-of-silence logic (Packer, 2009) whereby individuality is restricted by other people’s opinion. In addition, the top managers and owner of the company cooperation with the external consultant allows the sharing of responsibility to members of the risk which minimizes blaming in case of failure of decision(Clark, 1971). As a result, the decision will most likely be riskier, as they share the risk and relatively make individual felt risk less. Another probability for the risky-shift to exist is the leadership influence(Clark, 1971) over the group. High risk-taker will persuade others to take greater risks(Collins & Guetzkow, 1964) because of their aggressiveness and commitment in the pursuit of their objective which in this case the top manager and owner. The top managers and owner personal and direct involvement in the company and in the discussion (Forsyth, 1990) will have the tendency to influence the group members. This is further supported by Brown (1965) who asserts that status in the group is often connected with risk-taking, which oftentimes made the group chose the riskier alternative. In this case scenario, the decision of investing in human resource despite the prevailing financial economic crisis is a perceived risk yet the group chose to proceed with the plan perhaps because of the influence that the owner have over the group. This is further explored by Bateson (1966) who asserts that as individual become familiar with the problem will tend to advocate more risky alternative. A group interaction will significantly contributes in the amiliarization perspective(Kogan & Wallach, 1967) which allow members of the group to known and be comfortable with risk at hand (Clark, 1971). This group interaction opens the discussion and information exchange towards possible alternative during a risky decision-making. Perhaps the most widely recognized reason of a risky-shift is the cultural value in itself. In the group or in the society situation most individuals choose a riskier decision in order to increase their status in the group. Clark (1971) exerts that diffusion-of-responsibility, leadership influence and familiarization, is dependent upon the relevant content of the risk. In the case of Yellow Auto Company which the structure management is hierarchical, the top manager and owner have wider scope of activities and concern of the company’s status. Given the current situation of the company in which employee become less committed and unsatisfied in their job, decided to mitigate the issue through investing in human resource development and seek assistance from external consultant. This is probably to ensure that they are relatively blameless in the event of company failure and protect their status as well-know global car company. The economic crisis will not only entails the company or family societal status but will also cost them particularly on monetary budget allocation and the length of time to implement and evaluate the result and progress as the external consultant do their job. Perhaps the most common action plan during this time of economic crisis is cost cutting or reduction of employee. Another probability would be that the company will try to maximize their internal workforce or perhaps freeze job hiring rather than spending too much on outsourced hiring. However the group has made this risky-shift as a display of good decision making by their unwavering determination to reach its main aim of customer satisfaction and to achieve its goal to increase share in the market. The attitude of the top managers of being less cautious or less conservative in its orientation towards decision making (Hong, 1978) made it possible for them to reach their the goal. Their participation and cooperation with external consultant is a manifestation of an effective group decision. This group interaction opens an avenue for change process and ultimately results to the attainment of the desired goal. The acceptance of top managers on working with external consultants reflects criteria of compromise decision making, whereby allowing members of the group to freely discuss and present individual and collective ideas and opinion for the common good of the company. This action creates a positive motivation towards job satisfaction of employee (Nemioff & King, 1975) which is described in the case in the later part where employee shows job satisfaction and organizational commitment. This is an indication of an effective group decision making whereby members of the group participate in the implementation of the decision (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Conclusion These are only few of the many sociological phenomenons that influence a group decision making, especially when group cohesiveness is high and there is an absence of open communication. Groupthinks reduce individuality in a group discussion while risky-shift enable individual to conform with the group in order to increase group status. Understanding these theories would enable the group to recognize the factors that may affect the quality of decisions we made in the group. It also reduces the magnitude of pressure in which the risk has to bring in every decision made during uncertainties. In addition, group communication is very important in the process of decision-making whereby individual is able to express their opinion and ideas. It is also in this way that individual contribution is valued and will learn to stand his position in certain decision-making procedure. It may be difficult and challenging because of individual different views but the process will develop alternatives in problem solving which reflects a good group decision-making. Overall, understanding these sociological phenomenon and perspective allow us to identify attributes that may control and limit the development of best alternative in solving problem and issues. Recommendation To avoid the pitfall of groupthink and risky-shift sociological perspective it is recommended that 1. Each members of the group that is to include the leader or manager should value the presence and idea of each members of the group 2. Leaders and managers should be sensitive enough to avoid the effects of groupthink by refraining from using their power and influence over the group. 3. Leaders and managers should refrain from persuading members of the group in their own idea. 4. Group members should in times take the role of a critical evaluator and this should be allowed by the group to speak his doubts on the decision. 5. A separate group should be created to work with the same problem. 6. Finally, a good communication between group members combined with a deeper understanding would bring success and less probability of failure in the decision.

Curriculum essay

Curriculum essay Curriculum essay Curriculum essayTeaching students with intellectual disabilities (ID) evokes considerable difficulties in face of educators, who have to develop effective methods and strategies that can facilitate the learning of students. However, students with ID often face difficulties with the adequate perception of instructions and proper response to them. This is why often educators should elaborate new methods, which are more sophisticated but more effective compared to conventional methods used in conventional classrooms.Interactive features and anchored instructions  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Interactive features and anchored instructions involve the use of the equipment and software, which allow students with ID respond to the stimulus used by educators in the course of instructions to evoke the target response from students. Interactive features and anchored instructions contribute to the better interaction between educators and students.   In addition, this method help s students to develop responsiveness to external stimuli and interact with their environment.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, this method may confront the problem of the poor response of students with ID in interactive features, if they have problems with the perception of those visual means or cannot focus their attention on those features.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nevertheless, this problem may be resolved through active physical and active prompting which will encourage students to stay focused on the interactive features and learning. Educators can help students with ID to focus on specific features and provide prompts that will help students to learn and understand instructions and respond to interactive features in the target way and, thus, learn instructions or develop target skills.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Costs of the implementation of interactive features and anchored instructions may be high since the modern equi pment and software are needed, but effects of using this method outweigh its costs.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The use of interactive features and anchored instructions can bring positive outcomes in terms of socialization as students with ID learn to interact with media and educators and develop skills, which can help them to develop their social interaction with other students, their peers and other people.Closed captioning  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Closed captioning is another method that can be used to teach students with ID. This method involves the use of closed captions to provide prompts, when students with ID are watching video, clips and other visual materials (Fey 531). Such visual prompts help them to catch main points and understand instructions and educator’s messages better that facilitate their learning.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, closed captions imply the presence of relatively well-develo ped reading skills, which is not always the case of students with ID. In addition, students with ID may have difficulties to focus their attention on closed captions, while they are watching some video, for example.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Costs of using closed captions are relatively low, if the equipment and software used for visual presentations and watching video materials in the course of instructions are already available to educators. In fact, they only need to add closed captions that require basic skills of using free software and media available to them. For example, even YouTube offers an opportunity to make closed captions. Therefore, educators will just need some time to make closed captions without investing substantial costs into the practical application of this method.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Outcomes of using this method are positive because closed captions help students with ID to focus on specific points and single out main points in video clips and other visual means, which they watch in the course of the instructions (Turnbull, Turnbull, Wehmeyer 118). In such a way, students learn to focus their attention on specific issues, make generalization and distinguish key points.Picture-based symbols  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The use of picture-based symbols method implies the use of pictures that back up textual information or other instructions by means of developing close associations between the studied item and the image on the picture. For example, a student with ID, who learns to write, can associate the letter ‘A’ with apple. Attaching the picture of the apple to the letter will develop close association in student and he/she will memorize the letter through association with the apple (Hunt Marshall 185). Therefore, this method develops associative thinking and helps students to learn new items through picture-based associations.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚   However, the drawback of this method is its inapplicability to complex instructions, when educators are trying to teach students with ID complex issues. For example, it is quite difficult to depict an abstract concept like ‘love’ or ‘peace’ by means of pictures in such a way that a student with ID developed right associations.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Costs of this method are low since educators do not need much funds to create pictures to back up instructions, which they are going to deliver during the class to students with ID.Conclusion  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, the aforementioned methods have both strengths and weaknesses but educators should be able to apply them in their work with students with ID because, under certain conditions, they can be effective and facilitate the learning process for students. In addition, these methods match current standards aiming at the inclusion of all students in the le arning process because they make instructions comprehensible and available to students and open better educational opportunities for them.

Profile of Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding

Profile of Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding Born April 24, 1882, at Moffat, Scotland, Hugh Dowding was the son of a schoolmaster. Attending St. Ninians Preparatory School as a boy, he continued his education at Winchester College at age 15. After two years of further schooling, Dowding elected to pursue a military career and began classes at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich in September 1899. Graduating the following year, he was commissioned as a subaltern and posted to the Royal Garrison Artillery. Sent to Gibraltar, he subsequently saw service in Ceylon and Hong Kong. In 1904, Dowding was assigned to the No. 7 Mountain Artillery Battery in India. Learning to Fly Returning to Britain, he was accepted for the Royal Staff College and began classes in January 1912. In his spare time, he quickly became fascinated by flying and aircraft. Visiting the Aero Club at Brooklands, he was able to convince them to give him flying lessons on credit. A quick learner, he soon received his flying certificate. With this in hand, he applied to the Royal Flying Corps to become a pilot. The request was approved and he joined the RFC in December 1913. With the outbreak of ​World War I in August 1914, Dowding saw service with Nos. 6 and 9 Squadrons. Dowding in World War I Seeing service at the front, Dowding showed a deep interest in wireless telegraphy which led him to return to Britain in April 1915 to form the Wireless Experimental Establishment at Brooklands. That summer, he was given command of No. 16 Squadron and returned to the fighting until posted to the 7th Wing at Farnborough in early 1916. In July, he was assigned to lead 9th (Headquarters) Wing in France. Taking part in the Battle of the Somme, Dowding clashed with the commander of the RFC, Major General Hugh Trenchard, over the need to rest pilots at the front. This dispute soured their relationship and saw Dowding reassigned to the Southern Training Brigade. Though promoted to brigadier general in 1917, his conflict with Trenchard ensured that he did not return to France. Instead, Dowding moved through various administrative posts for the remainder of the war. In 1918, he moved to the newly created Royal Air Force and in the years after the war led No. 16 and No. 1 Groups. Moving into staff assignments, he was sent to the Middle East in 1924 as the chief staff officer for the RAF Iraq Command. Promoted to air vice marshal in 1929, he joined the Air Council a year later. Building the Defenses On the Air Council, Dowding served as Air Member for Supply and Research and later Air Member for Research and Development (1935). In these positions, he proved instrumental in modernizing Britains aerial defenses. Encouraging the design of advanced fighter aircraft, he also supported the development of new Radio Direction Finding equipment. His efforts ultimately led to the design and production of the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire. Having been promoted to air marshal in 1933, Dowding was selected to lead the newly formed Fighter Command in 1936. Though overlooked for the position of Chief of the Air Staff in 1937, Dowding worked tirelessly to improve his command. Promoted to air chief marshal in 1937, Dowding developed the Dowding System which integrated several air defense components into one apparatus. This saw the uniting of radar, ground observers, raid plotting, and radio control of aircraft. These disparate components were tied together through a protected telephone network that was administered through his headquarters at RAF Bentley Priory. In addition, to better control his aircraft, he divided the command into four groups to cover all of Britain. These consisted of Air Vice Marshal Sir Quintin Brands 10 Group (Wales and the West Country), Air Vice Marshal Keith Parks 11 Group (Southeastern England), Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallorys 12 Group (Midland East Anglia), and Air Vice Marshal Richard Sauls 13 Group (Northern England, Scotland, Northern Ireland). Though scheduled to retire in June 1939, Dowding was asked to remain in his post until March 1940 due to the deteriorating international situation. His retirement was subsequently postponed until July and then October. As a result, Dowding remained at Fighter Command as World War II began. The Battle of Britain With the outbreak of World War II, Dowding worked with Chief of the Air Staff Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril Newall to ensure that Britains defenses were not weakened in order to support campaigns on the Continent. Stunned by RAF fighter losses during the Battle of France, Dowding warned the War Cabinet of the dire consequences should it continue. With defeat on the Continent, Dowding worked closely with Park to ensure that air superiority was maintained during the Dunkirk Evacuation. As the German invasion loomed, Dowding, known as Stuffy to his men, was viewed as a steady but distant leader. As the Battle of Britain began in the summer of 1940, Dowding worked to ensure adequate aircraft and resources were available to his men. The brunt of the fighting was carried by Parks 11 Group and by Leigh-Mallorys 12 Group. Though badly stretched during the course of the fighting, Dowdings integrated system proved effective and at no point did he commit more than fifty percent of his aircraft to the battle zone. During the course of the fighting, a debate emerged between Park and Leigh-Mallory regarding tactics. While Park favored intercepting raids with individual squadrons and subjecting them to continued attack, Leigh-Mallory advocated for massed attacks by Big Wings consisting of at least three squadrons. The thought behind the Big Wing was that a larger number of fighters would increase enemy losses while minimizing RAF casualties. Opponents pointed out that it took longer for Big Wings to form and increased the danger of fighters being caught on the ground refueling. Dowding proved unable to resolve the differences between his commanders, as he preferred Parks methods while the Air Ministry favored the Big Wing approach. Dowding was also criticized during the battle by Vice Marshal William Sholto Douglas, Assistant Chief of Air Staff, and Leigh-Mallory for being too cautious. Both men felt that Fighter Command should be intercepting raids before they reached Britain. Dowding dismissed this approach as he believed it would increase losses in aircrew. By fighting over Britain, downed RAF pilots could be quickly returned to their squadrons rather than lost at sea. Though Dowdings approach and tactics proved correct for achieving victory, he was increasingly seen as uncooperative and difficult by his superiors. With the replacement of Newell with Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal, and with an aged Trenchard lobbying behind the scenes, Dowding was removed from Fighter Command in November 1940, shortly after winning the battle. Later Career Awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath for his role in the battle, Dowding was effectively sidelined for the rest of his career due to his outspoken and forthright manner. After conducting an aircraft purchasing mission to the United States, he returned to Britain and conducted an economic study on RAF manpower before retiring in July 1942. In 1943, he was created First Baron Dowding of Bentley Priory for his service to the nation. In his later years, he became actively engaged in spiritualism and increasingly bitter regarding his treatment by the RAF. Largely living away from the service, he did serve as the president of the Battle of Britain Fighter Association. Dowding died at Tunbridge Wells on February 15, 1970, and was buried at Westminster Abbey. Sources Royal Air Force Museum: Hugh DowdingWorld War II Database: Hugh DowdingRAFWeb: Hugh Dowding

STEP analysis and Market Segmentation Assignment

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